1. Complement clauses

Complement clauses in January 6th are always finite and may function as subject or direct object of their matrix clauses. They are introduced by the subordinating particle a, and are usually placed last in the sentence, even as subjects, especially heavy complement clauses. They cause third person singular agreement on the verb:

  • e-we-wèu lò a ì-mòa amo-a gagu
    3SG-PERF-shock boy SUB 3SG-love girl-ERG buffalo
    'that the girl loved the buffalo shocked the boy'

  • ì-mòa gagu-a a e-we-wèu amo-a lò
    3SG-love buffalo-ERG SUB 3SG-PERF-shock girl-ERG boy
    'the buffalo likes that the girl shocked the boy'

Verbs that imply that the event expressed in the complement clause is a hypothetical or potential situation cause its verb to appear in the irrealis mood:

  • o-weta a ì-u-use gagu miso-si
    1SG-want SUB 3SG-IRR-eat buffalo soup-ACC
    'I want the buffalo to eat the soup'

  • o-kòo a ì-u-use gagu miso-si
    1SG-think SUB 3SG-IRR-eat buffalo soup-ACC
    'I think that the buffalo eats/ate the soup'

The same construction is used when the subject of the complement clause is co-referential with that of the matrix clause:

  • e-weta amo-a a ì-u-teteg
    3SG-want girl-ERG SUB 3SG-IRR-grow
    'the girl wants to grow'

When there is no clear semantical agent of the complement clause, it takes the third person singular marker and the irrealis affix:

  • a ì-u-sug gagu moku setim
    SUB 3SG-IRR-hug buffalo big difficult
    'hugging big buffalos is hard'

This contrasts with:

  • a o-u-sug gagu moku setim
    SUB 1SG-IRR-hug buffalo big difficult
    'hugging big buffalos is hard for me' / 'for me to hug a big buffalo would be hard'

2. Adverbial clauses

Adverbial clauses are largely similar to main clauses, apart from the subordinators that introduce them and the restrictions on aspect and mood marking characterizing some of them.

2.1. Time

The subordinator mù may be translated as 'when' or 'while':

  • o-ak-wè-miwa mù sa-use miso
    1SG-2SG-PERF-kiss SUB 2SG-eat soup
    'I kissed you while you were eating the soup'

  • ine-go-legi mù o-wè-um
    3PL-1SG-see SUB 1SG-PERF-jump
    'they saw me when I jumped'

2.2. Purpose

Purpose clauses are introduced by the subordinator ili. They are always irrealis:

  • ì-teku-an amo-a uk-ne ili ì-u-legi e-waga-a
    3SG-cut-3PL girl-ERG tree-PL SUB 3SG-IRR-see 3POSS-friend-ERG
    'the girl chops down the trees so her friend can see her'

  • e-wè-miwa lò-a amo ili ì-u-wèu gagu
    3SG-PERF-kiss boy-ERG girl SUB 3SG-IRR-shock buffalo
    'the boy kissed the girl to shock the buffalo'

2.3. Reason

Reason clauses differ only from purpose clauses in that they are invariably realis:

  • e-legi e-waga-a amo ili e-we-teku-an uk-ne
    3SG-see 3POSS-friend-ERG girl SUB 3SG-PERF-cut-3PL tree-PL
    'the girl’s friend saw her because she had chopped down the trees'

  • ine-kata osug-ne ili o-og-an
    3PL-break axe-PL SUB 1SG-drop-3PL
    'the axes break because I drop them'

2.4. Conditional

Conditional clauses are introduced by the subordinator nag. They occur more commonly before the main clause than other adverbial clauses.

The verb of a conditional clause may be realis or irrealis. It is irrealis in hypothetical and counterfactual sentences. The main clause is always irrealis:

  • nag ago u susi, o-u-nasi a sag
    SUB 1SG COP fish, 1SG-IRR-swim in water
    'if I were a fish, I would swim in water'

(u is the irrealis copula.)

The conditional clause is also irrealis when it describes a future event:

  • o-at-u-miwa nag sa-go-u-sug
    1SG-2SG-IRR-kiss SUB 2SG-1SG-IRR-hug
    'I will kiss you if you hug me'

It is realis in simple present or past conditional clauses:

  • nag tago moku, lò u inì
    SUB ball big, boy COP happy
    'if the ball is big, the boy is happy'

  • nag sa-wè-og, ì-u-kata
    SUB 2SG-PERF-drop, 3SG-IRR-break
    'if you dropped it, it broke'

3. Relative clauses

Only subjects and direct objects can be relativized in January 6th. The relativizer a (the same as the subordinator a in section 1 above) introduces the relative clause. A gap is left, coreferential with the head noun:

  • lò a ì-mòa amo-a ∅.
    boy REL 3SG-love girl-ERG ∅
    'the boy that the girl loves'

  • lò a ì-mòa ∅ amo
    boy REL 3SG-love ∅ girl
    'the boy that loves the girl'

The person agreement on the verb is intact for both subject and object:

  • tago-n a e-legi-an susi-a
    ball-PL REL 3SG-see-3PL fish-ERG
    'the balls that the fish sees'

In a benefactive applicative construction, the applicative object, but not the base object, can be relativized:

  • e-wotu-sig lò-a amo tago
    3SG-throw-BEN boy-ERG girl ball
    'the boy throws the girl a ball'

  • amo a e-wotu-sig lò-a tago
    girl REL 3SG-throw-BEN boy-ERG ball
    'the girl that the boy throws a ball to'

  • tago a e-wotu-sig lò-a amo
    ball REL 3SG-throw-BEN boy-ERG girl
    *'the ball that the boy threw to the girl' / ?'the ball that the boy threw the girl to'

In an instrumental applicative construction, the base object, but not the applicative object, can be relativized:

  • o-teku-atu uk osug
    1SG-cut-INST tree axe
    'I’m chopping a tree with an axe'

  • uk a o-teku-atu osug
    tree REL 1SG-cut-INST axe
    'the tree that I’m chopping with an axe'

  • osug a o-teku-atu uk
    axe REL 1SG-cut-INST tree
    *'the axe that I’m chopping the tree with' / ?'the axe that I’m chopping with a tree'