6. Verbs

The subject and direct object affixes are summarized in the table below.

The second person object affix allomorphy is similar to that of the corresponding nominal possession affix. -at- is used when followed by a vowel, -a- when followed by either of /l w/, and -ak- everywhere else.

For the plural subject affixes, the first allomorph is used preceding a vowel or /s/, and the second preceding any other consonant. The same is true for the plural reflexive object markers.

The third person singular subject prefix e- /ə/ is used preceding /l w/, and ì- /iʔ/ everywhere else.

Plural objects are marked the same way as singular objects, with the additional suffix -an after the stem.

All verbs are obligatorily marked for subject (except imperatives). Transitive verbs must take an object marker when an explicit (noun phrase) object is present, but it is not obligatory when lacking one.

January 6th distinguishes two aspects: imperfective and perfective. The former is unmarked, while the latter is marked with the prefix -wè- /wəʔ/, or -we- /wə/ preceding /l w/. This prefix is placed between the subject/object markers and the verb root.

The imperfective is used for ongoing processes and states. Unless context implies differently, the event is assumed to be going on at the time of the utterance:

The perfective is used for events seen as having occurred at a single point in time. It implies a past tense:

Two moods are distinguished: realis and irrealis. The former is unmarked, while the latter is marked with the prefix -u-, which is placed in the same position as the perfective prefix -wè-. The two markers do not co-occur, thus the aspect contrast is neutralized in the irrealis mood.

Realis is used for factual statements:

Irrealis is used for events that are seen as hypothetical or counterfactual. See further chapter 9, regarding the use of the irrealis mood. When context does not imply differently, irrealis marks a future event:

The suffix -sig [ɕiŋ] marks a benefactive applicative, while the suffix -atu marks an instrumental applicative.

The benefactive applicative marks an action or event as occurring for the benefit of another, usually animate, participant. The applicative object, that is, the object associated with the applicative marker, acquires most of the properties usually associated with a direct object, such as verb object agreement.

When used with a transitive verb, the applicative object is put before the base object, that is, the object associated with the verb stem:

An alternative to the benefactive applicative is using the preposition sig 'for':

In some contexts, the applicative object is seen as a possessor and the base object as a possessee. This interpretation is obligatory with body parts and kinship terms as base objects, and is decreasingly likely the looser the perceived bond between the two arguments:

Except with body parts and kinship terms, the possessor raised reading is not possible when this would imply an understanding of the applicative as a malefactive:

There is no verb meaning 'give' in January 6th. The same meaning is expressed by means of the verb e 'do, make' and the benefactive applicative:

The instrumental applicative marks an action as being performed with an instrument. The behavior of the applicative and base objects differ from that of the benefactive applicative in that the instrumental applicative object is placed after the base object:

When the applicative object is animate, the applicative construction as seen as comitative, implying the action is performed by the subject 'together with' the applicative object:

An alternative to the instrumental applicative is using the preposition ak 'with':

Verbs can be passivized with the suffix -i (-ʔi after a vowel). This decreases the valency of the verb by one and promotes the direct object to subject:

When there is no direct object in the untransformed clause, the subject of the passivized verb is understood as being an unspecified agent. The verb is marked for a third person singular subject, although the semantical agent is unspecified for number:

The agent may be reintroduced as an oblique argument with the preposition ak 'with':

Alternatively, the instrumental applicative may be used for the same purpose:

This construction cannot be used when passivizing a verb which already carries an applicative marker.

The behavior of the two applicative constructions varies when passivized.

When passivizing a verb with the benefactive applicative marker, the applicative object is promoted to subject. This subject is always in the unmarked absolutive case, while the former base object is in the absolutive case in the realis mood and accusative in the irrealis:

When passivizing a verb with the instrumental applicative marker, the base object is promoted to subject. As with the passive benefactives, the subject is always in the unmarked absolutive case, while the applicative object may be either absolutive or accusative: